My Personal Taste With The Battle Of The Titans - 2550 Words

Max Eunice Aliso Viejo Middle School English Acc Summer HW 1. The twelve Olympians gained power of the universe by going to war with the titans, the Olympians overthrew the titans and won the war, expelling the titans to the underworld. The victors then proceeded to settle into mount Olympus. 2. My personal taste aligns most with Aphrodite, the goddess of love. The reason being is that I love the life that I have, every last bit of it; however, it wasn t always that way. In sixth grade, I was figuring out who I am, and who I love, my life wasn t what I wanted it to be. My so called â€Å"friends† all of a sudden vanished, and I was alone. By myself. So I forgot about them, your not a real human if you can t accept someone for who they are. Flash forward to today, I have fabulous friends, and while there will always be haters, I have a support system, and have made support systems for kids going through exactly what I was going through. 3. The reason for the cruelty that the gods demonstrated are because they are selfish, self-centered, and only think for themselves, like a dysfunctional family. The myth of Prometheus has multiple examples, for example, the gods torturing Prometheus for stealing the fire that was given to the humans to get them off their back. The gods’ actions are certainly unjustified because of their values. The myth makers perceived powerful people as dictators who abuse their power, so they created the gods to be mean and unjust. 4. One of my favoriteShow MoreRelatedComparitive Study and Sales Promotional Stategies of Titan5644 Words   |  23 Pageslong dominated by public sector organizations like Hindustan Machine Tools Ltd. (HMT) and Allwyn (also famous for its refrigerators once upon a time!), and has now left the pioneers far behind or nowhere in market by private sector enterprises like Titan, Sonata, Ajanta and Timex along with foreign entities jostling for display space in the smallest of shops selling these products. Before the establishment of HMT as the dominant player in the Indian markets initially, the country was solely dependentRead MoreMarketing Plan of Pepsico5504 Words   |  23 Pagesbeing mindful of the rest of the company’s needs. Responsibility and Trust form the foundation for healthy growth. It’s about earning the confidence that other people place in us as individuals and as a company. Our responsibility means we take personal and corporate ownership for all we do, to be good stewards of the resources entrusted to us. We build trust between ourselves and others by walking the talk and being committed to succeeding together. 3. 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It was launched as an on the move drink in a 250 ml straw pack for outdoor consumption, with a tagline - Squeezed to please . ------------------------------------------------- ETL had done some preliminary research before the launch of Onjus. Based on the findings from their research, Onjus was given a sweeter taste compared to the imported juices. But at the same time, an element of bitternessRead MoreStrategic Management at Starbucks14676 Words   |  59 Pagessuch as design, music, the quality of the coffee. However, the fact that Starbucks tries to portray the brand as an authentic coffee shop is to some degree perceived as a marketing affectation to cover the real identity of Starbucks as a corporate titan who has commoditized the concept to target the mass-audience so it would seem that Starbucks is not able to live up to its brand promise. (Schultz, 2008) In February 2007, a leaked internal memo written by founder Howard Schultz showed that he recognizedRead MoreMarketing Management130471 Words   |  522 Pagesareas of management Market segmentation Market targeting and positioning Product management Brand management Pricing Channel design and management Retailing and Wholesaling Integrated Marketing Communication Advertising management Sales promotion Personal selling Public relations Understanding individual consumer behaviour Understanding industrial consumer behaviour Customer satisfaction Customer relationship management Marketing of services Rural marketing Types of marketing research Process of marketingRead MoreGp Essay Mainpoints24643 Words   |  99 PagesClick of mouse, people can access instantaneous info and news online †¢ Proliferation of online blogs and social networking sites such as Twitter threaten to make mainstream media a thing of the past †¢ But mainstream media adapting to suit the taste of consumers, still integral part of their lives Mainstream BAD: Comparatively slower in its dissemination of news †¢ Chicago Tribune, official website chicagotribue.com, posts instant news coverage before newspaper hit the newsstands followingRead MoreStephen P. 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The Internet And Social Media Essay - 2046 Words

We live in an age of connection where a person’s access to the internet is limited only by whether they have an internet ready device. The internet has allowed users to freely and effortlessly communicate with each other across the globe. This has opened up new and exciting prospects including forming friends aboard, creating a personal blog and competing in online games with people from other countries. It is estimated that around 2.95 billion people around the world use social media web-sites. In the United States (US) alone 78% of the US population have an active social media account (Social media statistics, 2016). The interconnectedness that the internet and social media provide brings fourth both the opportunity to communicate and abuse communication. The rate at which social media is expanding into everyday life meant that it is now a necessity to address the potential risks that social media inherently carry. Children and the elderly are of particular concern because of their inexperience and lack of knowledge of how the internet can affect their lives. Parents are concerned about whether their children will come in contact with explicitly online material and child predators. Regulatory bodies are now trying to devise strategies to minimize the risks of high risk groups. The purpose of this report is to investigate, identify and offer potential solutions to social media risks to enable regulatory bodies, high risk groups and parents to be informed and takeShow MoreRelatedSocial Media And The Internet1564 Words   |  7 Pagesassociated with social media and the Internet. Many years ago, before phones and computers were invented, simply going outside to play was a great way to spend time with friends and be entertained. Technology has evolved greatly since these days. Teens can communicate, post pictures, and search anything on the Internet nowadays. Although social media is a very big hit in this century, the real question is, is it safe? What does the use of social media and the Internet lead teens to do? Social media and theRead MoreThe Internet And Social Media946 Words   |  4 PagesInternet and Social Media The advent of the Information Age linked people to one another, across vast expanses of geographic space through a simple home computer. While early home users paid per minute of access, the service providers quickly offered a set, monthly fee for access and continuously growing bandwidth availability to remain competitive as users started streaming videos, music, and live broadcasts. Along with entertainment and communication between people, the internet also offers neverRead MoreThe Internet And Social Media927 Words   |  4 PagesThe internet and social media instantly connects individuals anywhere in the world with each other. This instant connection can be beneficial to nurses in the workplace. It enables quicker communication between staff and is an unlimited resource of information for nurses and patients. The downside is that nurses have to be careful of what they put online. Social media can be a great tool to improve patient care when used appropriately. An article titled To Tweet or not to Tweet? Nurses, Social MediaRead MoreSocial Media And The Internet Essay1362 Words   |  6 PagesSocial media and the internet have changed the way people in the music industry do business, along with how people in society receive music. People in the music industry have had to reevaluate everything that they have done in the past, in order to adapt to how things are now. Artists are now taking control of their own careers; because of that major labels are not making as much money as they did before. Through the internet and social media artists have been releasing there own music on sitesRead MoreThe Internet And Social Media1437 Words   |  6 Pagescontinues. The internet and various social media have been changing the arena in which people communicate with each other. People use the internet to interact with various individuals all over the world. The internet has bridged the gap between communicating with individuals as they connect with family, friends and other individuals in society. As individuals embraces the evolution of technology, there are multiple ways individuals can communicate with each other. Social media has been theRead MoreThe Internet and Social Media1212 Words   |  5 Pagesthe Internet, technology has vastly changed the way we live and communicate. This technological revolution we have gone through has brought about many new things into our daily lives. The birth of social media has completely changed technology, and they way we use it. We can now communicate with each other from anywhere around the world. We can update people on our current location. We can have a conversation over text. We can inform people exactly what we are doing at any given time. Social mediaRead MoreSocial Media And The Internet1866 Words   |  8 Pagestelevisions, and in the past few decades, the internet. According to History.com, in 1965, the first connection between two computers was made, and many advan ces occurred until the web we know today was birthed in 1991 by a swiss man named Tim Berners-Lee. This is when the world wide web, that WWW that appears on almost every URL, began to take shape, and where people could access an array of information. The internet seems to be the culmination of all these social media communication inventions. There areRead MoreInternet Usage Of Social Media1144 Words   |  5 PagesOVERVIEW: Internet usage has become a heavily integrated and important characteristic of current and contemporary society. It would be rare to meet anyone who has not yet used any aspect of the Internet. 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However since the rise of the internet and social media, Poiesz and van Raaij (2007) state that in increasingly crowded markets, and increasingly sophisticatedRead MoreThe Emergence Of The Internet And Social Media1079 Words   |  5 PagesThe emergence of the Internet and social media has had a tremendous impact on the theory and practice of advertising, public relations and marketing disciplines. Advertising spending on the Internet has outpaced all other traditional media (Center for Media Research, 2004). In the last two years, the number of social networking tools and the number of people using those tools have exploded, thus the rules are constantly changing and there is considerable uncertainty on how to employ these tools from

Soft Determinism and Oedipus Essay Example For Students

Soft Determinism and Oedipus Essay The fates of the Greeks and their understanding of those fates bears some resemblance to the modern notion of Soft Determinism. For example, Oedipus was destined to greatness and banishment, but not all aspects of his life were predetermined. In some ways, he seems to have had total control; in others he had none. Fates grip was tight, but it was not a death grip. It seems that the Greeks belief in the fates only goes so far. Certain aspects of their lives are fated from the moment of birth. But even with their belief in fate, the laws must be obliged and the transgressors punished. This contrasts with the Modern perspective of the Determinist. This philosophy suggests that everything that we do is only a result of our surroundings, the makeup of our genetics; it is, in a sense, fated. In contrast, the Greeks held individuals responsible for their deeds in spite of the motive. This can be seen when Oedipus accidentally murders of his own father and is banished. Never once did Oedipus attempt to say that the death was not his fault; he did not deny that he had killed his father and slept with his mother. On the contrary, he took full responsibility for his actions, even though he had no evil intent. On the other hand, neither was he fated to blind himself at the end of the chronicle; he could have accepted his banishment and gone on with his li fe as best he could. As a result, he is shunned by the Greeks for the ghastly deed of self-mutilation. It seems that fates reach stretches only so far and that many Oedipus decisions were his own. Oedipus may have been destined to share an incestuous relationship with his mother and to kill his father, but the other aspects of his life were a result of his choices. While every path led in one direction, there remained paths from which to choose. As a result, Oedipus maintained the freedom to choose how his life would end. He could have merely accepted his banishment, leaving to lead a meaningful life elsewhere. Instead, he blinded himself, thus ensuring a life of pain and suffering. In todays world, people are consumed with blaming others for their problems, never taking accountability for their own actions. If one is not in control of his or her actions, then they are not responsible for them. Who is responsible in this case? is anyone? Someone, it seems, must be held responsible f or society to work. People must be held responsible for their actions or there would be total chaos. The Soft Determinist and the Greeks understood this. The Soft Determinist believes that though many of our actions are only a result of outside stimuli, we remain responsible from them. Much like the Greeks fate, one cannot control his life in the entirety, but one must take responsibility for his or her own action. For one to be responsible for his or her actions, all one must do is act. Freedom is the ability to carry through with the action that has been selected. There is usually more that one option in any affair; freedom lies in ability to make a choice and execute that decision. As Sartre enumerated, men are condemned to be free. Yes, men are predisposed and taught to act a certain way, but the process of development is not only determined by the outside world, but by oneself. The complex nature of consciousness allows man to teach himself as much, if not more than, the outside would. The Greeks looked at this as remembering the forms; knowledge was not taught as much as revea led. Self-reflection is one of the things that makes us human and one of the reasons we can and should be held responsible for our actions. Many things are fated to happen because of the situation and genetics of birth, but mans reality is not only formed by others; man also determines that reality for himself. Bibliography:

Peer Pressure Essays (338 words) - Educational Psychology, Youth

Peer Pressure Peer pressure can influence a person to start smoking, drinking, or doing drugs and other things that are harmful to his/her body. However, peer pressure can also be helpful by influencing someone to do right instead of wrong. For example, a person can be an example to his/her friends and let them know he/she wants to do right and he/she wants to change how he/she acts or what he/she were like. Peer pressure can be a struggle for some people because they may be depressed by what they have done or what people done to hurt their feelings in the past. Peer pressure can make a person feel really bad about him/herself, but a person must remember that peer pressure can be good or bad. Peer Pressure has been blamed for adolescent behaviors ranging from choice in clothing to drug usage. A new study says that the effects of peer pressure on teenagers behavior may be highly overrated. This study, published in Addiction (Vol. 91, No. 2), adds to a growing body of research that suggests peer pressure is a weaker factor in adolescent behavior than many had believed. When there is so much emphasis on peer pressure, theres a tendency not to discuss or not to look hard for evidence of other factors. We went back and tried to critically examine the importance of peer pressure. Researchers did studies over a twenty year spand to find that peer pressure was easily blamed for teenage behavior but never examined. Other factors such as family life, economic background, environment, and biological tendencies all may be as important or even more important than peer pressure in determining behavior. Kids who smoke tend to choose kids who smoke as friends. Children who have the same habits have a tendency to hang together. Peer pressure may be least factor in the use of drugs and other habits related to teenage life, but nonetheless peer pressure is a factor that influences drug use among teenagers. Social Issues

The Careful Writer †Deboras Pen (Cartoon)

The Careful Writer – Deboras Pen (Cartoon) Devyani Borade is the creator, and real-life version, of Debora. Her fiction, nonfiction and art have been accepted/published magazines across the world. Visit her website Verbolatry at http://devyaniborade.blogspot.com to contact her, and enjoy more of Deboras adventures.

Folk Wisdom in Pregnancy Module 1 Writing Assignme Essays (1139 words)

Folk Wisdom in Pregnancy Module 1 Writing Assignme Essays (1139 words) Folk Wisdom in Pregnancy Module 1 Writing Assignment PSY 241-N02 Shianne Buie When it comes to pregnancy there is no shortage of the curiosity and uncertainty that surround the birth and delivery of a child. For centuries people have held superstitions and beliefs about pregnancy that many still trust in today. People may believe in wives' tales due to personal experience, supporting facts or plain fear, but either way folk wisdom does seem to hold some insight into the mysteries surrounding pregnancy. I personally come from a family who are no strangers to wives' tales, my own mother actually decided to put one to the test when pregnant with me. When I asked her why she would do that she stated, " I was just really tired of being pregnant and wanted to hurry things along " (Northcutt, 2017). You see I was her firstborn and since she didn ' t necessarily consider patience a virtue in the first place, she was dying to get me out as soon as possible. Tho ugh I ' m guessing that carrying around a baby in her belly with swollen ankles probably had something to do with it as well. The youngest of eight, she ' d grown up listening to my grandmother talk about her own pregnancies and the truth of all the wives' tales she ' d heard throughout the years. One of these tales was that if a woman drinks a spoonful of castor oil near the end of her pregnancy, it will induce the labor. Naturally my mom came to the conclusion that this particular idea was brilliant and she would try it out, despite not knowing a thing about what might really happen. That being said the method was indeed effective, just half a day later I entered the world and needless to say my mother couldn ' t have been more relived. Even with that being said I ' m still pretty skeptical when it comes to placing too much trust into things like that, I just can ' t believe something that is not completely proven like my mother is able to. At least not something that can affect a human life, although I must say some wives' tales might be little easier to put faith in if they had some scientific proof to back them up. While there are individuals who can merely believe in something without confirming that it exists, there are also those who rely on facts and physical evidence to convince them. I myself belong to the latter group and so to really believe that something is true, I have to see the facts to support it. There ' s one wives' tale in particular that does have just that. It suggests that if woman experiences particularly bad heartburn during pregnancy, then her baby will be born will a full head of hair. This occurrence is often found to be correct as according to Robinson (2015), " In a 2006 study involving 64 participants, researchers at Johns Hopkins Hospital found that women who reported moderate levels of heartburn throughout pregnancy gave birth to babies with hair on 82 per cent of occasions , while most expectant mothers who did not show signs of digestive discomfort had children that were bald at birth . Now being a person who naturally places more trust in science that century old superstition, I have no problem admitting that this folk wisdom is indeed highly plausible. However, there are also some folk wisdoms that I ' d rather not put any trust in at all and I know I ' m alone in this. While most are centered on harmless ideals, there are some wives ' tales which carry more fear than fact for any expecting mother. Perhaps one of the more terrifying of these is that if pregnant woman lifts her hands above her head, the umbilical cord will be wrapped around the baby. This particular tale probably scares more expecting mothers into believing it due to the known consequences of an umbilical cord actually causing harm to a child. As it is a fact that when the cord becomes wrapped around a child ' s neck, it cuts

Malaria Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Malaria - Research Paper Example The cells then invade the liver and become hypnozoites. These undergo the division and are released in the blood. The parasite infected cells burst and release further more mature protozoa in the blood which causes the chills and fever. The repeated episodes of this blood phase keep on occurring till the treatment. The parasite, therefore, acts as a carrier of the plasmodium and spread malaria (Schwartz, Parise, Kozarsky, & Cetron, 2003). It has just come to my knowledge that there was another genus of Plasmodium known as P. knowlesi. It was earlier recognized as the main cause of malaria. But the research later showed that it mostly infects the Macaques in Southeast Asia and humans to some extent. Malaria, in this case, spreads from animal to human. The animal was thought to be monkey which has been documented as a cause of human infections and deaths in the past. I also came from this fact that the malaria infected individual should not donate blood till three years. The blood bank follows the strict rules for accepting the donors who have been in the endemic area. The donor must remain symptomless for these years in order to be able to donate blood later in life. Among all the malaria species, P. vax and P. oval can for dormant liver stages that can reside inside the body for up to 3 to 4 years. The pregnant women are more susceptible to the disease by P. falciparum. P. falciparum infection may lead to the decrease baby’ weight which then reduces the chance of baby survival.... knowlesi. It was earlier recognized as the main cause of malaria. But the research later showed that it mostly infects the Macaques in Southeast Asia and humans to some extent. The malaria in this case spreads from animal to human. The animal was thought to be monkey which has been documented as a cause of human infections and deaths in the past. I also came by this fact that the malaria infected individual should not donate blood till three years. The blood bank follows the strict rules for accepting the donors who have been in the endemic area. The donor must remain symptomless for these years in order to be able to donate blood later in life. Among all the malarial species, P. vivax and P. ovale can for dormant liver stages that can reside inside the body for up to 3 to 4 years. The pregnant women are more susceptible to the disease by P. falciparum. P. falciparum infection may lead to the decrease baby’ weight which then reduces the chance of baby survival. EPIDEMIOLOGY It is an international health problem affecting 215 million people worldwide. Annually it causes about 665,000 deaths due to poor treatment regimen and atmospheric conditions. Despite the development and research on the disease, there are still many endemic areas for the occurrence of malaria. CDC has provided the data about these endemic countries, which is derived from the different sources like World Health Organization. Usually the attack is most common in the Southeast Asia, Africa and some parts of the Caribbean and Eastern Europe. Of all these cases, 65 % occur in Africa, 19% in Asia, 15% in Caribbean and to the lesser number in Europe. (Cdc.gov, 2011) It occurs in the tropical and subtropical

Alzheimer's Disease Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Alzheimer's Disease - Essay Example After a few minutes, she inquired again about my finals. This occurred throughout the conversation. I thought it was a quirk of age progression, but, as the months passed and the signs worsened, I learned just how bad it was. The following months were much the same, except the moments of memory loss increased and began to include repeated questions. It was difficult for me not to lose my patience as I found myself continually providing the same answers. My mother was growing increasingly frustrated at being unable to remember saying or asking something just minutes prior. It seemed that her entire mood had changed, and she went from pleasant to bitter. When she called me early one morning, she was raging with anger, so much to the point that it took some time to calm her down before I could find out what had upset her. She had gotten lost on her way to the grocery store, a trip that she had made weekly for as long as I could remember. Through my direction, she was able to get home, b ut then announced a new problem: she lost her keys. It only took moments to deduce that she had tucked them into her purse. It was after that experience that I persuaded my mother to see a doctor. The changes in her memory and mood had come too rapidly, and I stopped assuming that they were merely traits of aging. I accompanied my mother to her appointment, perhaps already aware on an unconscious level what the doctor would tell me. When he concluded that my mother was succumbing to the effects of Alzheimer’s disease, I was not as surprised as I had expected myself to be. The doctor informed me of the devastating journey ahead, so when I got home, I called my mother’s sister and we began to make preparations to ensure that my mother would have someone with her at all times to help her as more symptoms presented themselves. After I moved back home and my aunt followed suit, I was able to see the depths of the degeneration of my mother’s health. Living with her re quired constant care, and the tasks of keeping up with her were weighing heavily on my aunt. Only a few years younger than my mother, Aunt Carol was worried that she would soon develop Alzheimer’s. For her, watching my mother meant watching her potential future, and she often needed my support as we helped my mother with her daily chores and activities. The doctor had warned us what to expect as her Alzheimer’s progressed, but I was no less prepared to see the dramatic changes in my mother, once a healthy, lively individual. Her memory worsened, causing confusion, and simple activities such as getting dressed became arduous tasks for her. My aunt and I guided my mother as much as we could, but she was unable to cope with the new situation of her needing help with tasks that she had accomplished on her own for so many years. Her frustration grew and was only exacerbated when she could no longer recall what had initially caused her to become upset. When I would inquire i nto her mood, prompting her to think about her present condition, she would provide me with scenarios that had never occurred, and I knew that she was experiencing hallucinations. These changes, while harrowing to watch, had been easy for me to handle. It was when she stopped recognizing my aunt and I, constantly asking who we were and why we had rooms in her home, that the effects of Al

Violence in the office Essay Example for Free

Violence in the office Essay Review This assignment required me to find an article on violence in the office and write a brief overview of the article using the university library. I will discuss different types of violence that lead to office violence. I will then discuss ways in which a company can control the influences that incite office violence. After reviewing a few different articles I have decided on an article from the university library called† Out of the Shadows,† by Dori Meinert. This article talks about 2 different stories that both deal with physical and mental violence. The stories were not actually based in an office setting, but were based in a home setting (Meinert, 2011). Though once the violence in the home setting was bad enough it spilled into the work place and eventually put the other employees in danger. The article also discussed the role human resources played and discusses how important this department is in any company. It goes into how human resources resolve problems such as domestic violence, and how they can be a great resource in these kinds situation. Human resources have the training, skill set, and ability to keep issue private that helps in instances where there is violence in the work place (Meinert, 2011). With avoidance programs, employee training sessions, and employee assistance programs these will help train and coach employees through and also help them avoid issues such as office violence. Forms of Bullying in the Workplace When it comes to offices violence that could result in bullying there are many different types. In an office setting violence might include a group or person against a peer or someone who reports to another. The violence can be continuous or just conduct that is unreasonable. The majority of the documented instances were management or the administration who perpetrated a number of offenses. The major types of violence include: nonverbal, verbal, embarrassment, physical, and psychological abuse. Examples of verbal abuse  would be name-calling which happens more often than not. A simple phrase calling someone out of there name and cursing are the quickest way to verbally abuse someone and not realize it (Meinert, 2011). In the second story told in the article a women who is abused in her home life seeks refuge at work and tells her co-workers. She felt like she needed to tell someone to get assistance, which in some cases can help. It can actually backfire in some cases. Telling someone your personal business can lead to peers discussing your personal business behind your back spreading rumors, criticizing, or gossiping about your business. Ways to avoid violence in the work place Training employees on office like conduct, creating avoidance plan, and having a zero tolerance policy in place are the main methods to control, avoid, and protect employees against violence in the work place. Keeping the workers trained on up to date procedures and processes is very important. Also making sure managers and human resources are trained on effective communication is also very important. An employee has to trust their manager and if not their manager, than human resources to feel comfortable to talk about issues like violence. Making sure the employees understand that there is an open door policy and that any kind of violence in the work place in not acceptable and will not be tolerated. Most importantly there needs to be an immediate response and rapid results to create a secure environment for all employees.

Hindu Wedding Ceremony Essay -- Descriptive Wedding Hindu Culture Essa

Hindu Wedding Ceremony Introduction The tradition Vedic wedding ceremony is about four thousand years old. The ceremony is a religious occasion solemnized in accordance with the Vedas, the sacred scriptures of the Hindus. It is a collection of rituals performed by the bride’s parents. Each steps in the ceremony has symbolic philosophical and spiritual meaning. The Maharaj (priest) conducts the ceremony by chanting Mantras (bridal altar). The ceremony is performed in Sanskrit, the most ancient surviving language.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Lagna, the marriage, is performed to unite two souls so firmly that after marriage although their bodied remain separate, their souls merge and become harmonious. They become spiritually one. Swagatam (Welcoming the Groom) Jay arrives amid much celebration with his family and friends at the doorsteps. Hiral’s mother welcomes Jay and asks him if is prepared to make the life long commitment and is ready to deal with the bittersweet experience that marriage will present in the future. He is then asked to brake a clay pot filled with curd, honey, ghee (clarified butter) and cottonseeds. The clay pot represent the world and the materials symbolize the different experience he will encounter in the journey of life ahead. Hiral’s mother then leads him to the Mandap (bridal altar) where the wedding ceremony will take place. Ganesh Puja, Kalash and Navagraha (Invocation to Lord Ganesh)   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The wedding ceremony begins with the worship of lord ganesh, the remover of all obstacles. Hiral’s parents attend the ceremony with jay, and the Maharaj (Priest) guides the rituals. The kalash (pot) contains sacred waters with coconut and flowers symbolizing the universe. Prayers are rendered to the kalash. This portion of the ceremony represents the worship of five basic elements; earth, air, fire, water and sky. The Navagraha (the nine planets of the solar system) are involved for their blessing. Kanyagaman And Manglashtak   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Hiral is brought to the Mandap by her maternal uncle(kanyagaman).A white curtain, antarpata ( a symbol of traditional barriers) is held between the couple. The bride’s relative (Mangalashtak) chant blessings. The curtain is then removed and Hiral and Jay exchange garlands. Madhuparka, Kanyadaan, and Hastamelap (Giving Away of the bride and joining of the Hands)   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Hiral’s father offers jay ghee and curd... ...a necklace made of sacred black beads (Mangal Sutra), signifying his abiding love, integrity and devotion. Then he places sindoor, a reddish powder in her hair. The priest then blesses the wedding ring and the couple exchanges them. These acts represent Hiral and Jay’s new status as a married woman and man. Kansar Bhojan (Nourishing the relationship)   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Jay and Hiral feed each other four times with sweets, signifying their pledge to love and care for each other, and accept the blessing to have a harmonious marriage. Khand Saubhagyavati (Blessing from the married women)   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Hiral and Jay now seek the blessing of their parents and their elderly relatives by bowing to their feet (ashirvaad). Married women form the bride’s side bless the couple by whispering â€Å"saubhagyavati Bhav†(blessing for abiding martial happiness)into the bride’s right ear. Then seek blessing from relatives and friends. Vidaai (Farewell)   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The last ritual of the ceremony is a touching and emotional farewell to the daughter. Hiral now begins her new role as a wife and as a member of the Warner family. She throws a fistful of rice, so that the house of her children remains prosperous and happy.

Relation of Group Performance to Age

Journal of Applied Psychology 2008, Vol. 93, No. 2, 392– 423 Copyright 2008 by the American Psychological Association 0021-9010/08/$12. 00 DOI: 10. 1037/0021-9010. 93. 2. 392 The Relationship of Age to Ten Dimensions of Job Performance Thomas W. H. Ng The University of Hong Kong Daniel C. Feldman The University of Georgia Previous reviews of the literature on the relationship between age and job performance have largely focused on core task performance but have paid much less attention to other job behaviors that also contribute to productivity.The current study provides an expanded meta-analysis on the relationship between age and job performance that includes 10 dimensions of job performance: core task performance, creativity, performance in training programs, organizational citizenship behaviors, safety performance, general counterproductive work behaviors, workplace aggression, on-the-job substance use, tardiness, and absenteeism. Results show that although age was largely unrelated to core task performance, creativity, and performance in training programs, it demonstrated stronger relationships with the other 7 performance dimensions.Results also highlight that the relationships of age with core task performance and with counterproductive work behaviors are curvilinear in nature and that several sample characteristics and data collection characteristics moderate age–performance relationships. The article concludes with a discussion of key research design issues that may further knowledge about the age–performance relationship in the future. Keywords: age, aging, older workers, job performance, meta-analysisAccording to the Bureau of Labor Statistics, the median age of the American workforce has been increasing over the last 30 years—35 years old in 1980, 37 years old in 1990, 39 years old in 2000, and 41 years old in 2006. This trend is also evident worldwide. For instance, International Labor Organization (2005) statistics indi cate that young adults between the ages of 20 and 24 were the largest segment of the working population in 1980. However, by 1990 the 30 –34 age group was the largest segment of the working population, and today the largest segment of the world’s working population is the age 40 – 44 cohort.Older workers are becoming an increasingly important concern for organizations for reasons beyond their sheer numbers. The shift to an older workforce has caused many organizations to spend more money on succession planning, pension benefits, health insurance, and medical benefits (Beehr & Bowling, 2002; Paul & Townsend, 1993). In addition, numerous organizations have concerns (and/or stereotypes) that older workers may exhibit lower productivity (Avolio & Waldman, 1994; Greller & Simpson, 1999; Hassell & Perrewe, 1995; Lawrence, 1996).For instance, compared with younger workers, older workers are stereotyped as being less physically capable, as more likely to have problems g etting along with coworkers, as preferring to invest more time in their families than in their jobs (Fung, Lai, & Ng, 2001; Paul & Townsend, 1993), as less technologically savvy, and as less willing to adapt quickly in volatile environments (Isaksson & Johansson, 2000; Riolli-Saltzman & Luthans, 2001). Thomas W. H.Ng, School of Business and Economics, The University of Hong Kong, Pok Fu Lam, Hong Kong; Daniel C. Feldman, Terry College of Business, The University of Georgia. Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to Thomas W. H. Ng, School of Business and Economics, The University of Hong Kong, Pok Fu Lam, Hong Kong. E-mail: [email  protected] hku. hk 392 Previous research has produced mixed results, however, regarding the precise relationship between age and job performance.In the three most-cited quantitative reviews of this literature, one found a moderate-sized positive relationship between age and performance (Waldman & Avolio, 1986), one found that age was largely unrelated to performance (McEvoy & Cascio, 1989), and the third found that the age–performance relationship took an inverted-U shape (Sturman, 2003). We believe that one reason for these mixed results is that much of the previous research on the age–performance relationship has focused rather narrowly on the performance of core task activities.As a result, past research has not closely examined the broad spectrum of behaviors that comprise â€Å"job performance† and the multiple ways in which age is related to work effectiveness. Over the past 2 decades, organizational researchers have been examining numerous other job-related behaviors that also legitimately fall under the rubric of job performance. These include the following: creativity, performance in training programs, organizational citizenship behaviors (OCBs), safety performance, counterproductive work behaviors, on-the-job substance use, workplace aggression, tardiness, and absence.Although mos t of these job behaviors could not be called core task activities per se (Organ, 1988), they do significantly affect organizational productivity by shaping the organizational cultures and environments in which core task performance takes place (Borman & Motowidlo, 1997). As such, examining a broader and more inclusive set of job performance measures may help clarify the complex relationship between age and performance. Mixed results on the age–performance relationship may also be partially attributable to the differing nature of research samples and data collection characteristics (Lawrence, 1996; S.R. Rhodes, 1983). For instance, research samples may vary in terms of the types of jobs workers perform, and as such, results may vary depending upon which skills older workers are required to utilize. AGE AND JOB PERFORMANCE 393 Similarly, because the nature of the work environment has changed substantially over the past 30 years, studies on the age–performance relationshi p conducted in the 1970s may have yielded very different results than studies conducted more recently. In addition, there may be differences in results depending upon whether data were collected cross-sectionally or longitudinally.For example, the effect of intraindividual aging on performance observed in longitudinal studies may be smaller in magnitude than the effect of broad age group differences observed in cross-sectional studies at any one point in time. Thus, examining the potential moderating effects of sample and data collection characteristics is not only important for research methodology purposes but for theoretical and practical reasons too. It allows us to identify the conditions under which age is likely to have positive, zero, or negative associations with various components of job performance.In the following section of the article, then, we briefly address some definitional issues, consider the results of previous quantitative reviews of the age–performance relationship, and discuss how the current study extends these previous reviews. Next, we present the results of an extended meta-analysis and provide evidence on the relationships between age and 10 performance dimensions. In the subsequent section, we examine the moderating effects of sample and data collection characteristics and also explore potential curvilinear relationships between age and performance dimensions.Finally, in the concluding section, we discuss the implications of our findings for future research and the management of older workers. Theoretical Background Definitional Issues Age versus aging. Age is a continuous variable and is used as such in our analyses. When we refer to age differences, we are referring to group-level differences between individuals at one age and individuals at another age. It is important to note here that, similar to previous quantitative reviews in this area of research (McEvoy & Cascio, 1989; Waldman & Avolio, 1986), the goal of the curr ent meta-analysis is not to isolate the effects of aging per se.That is, we are not directly examining the intraindividual aging process itself and how it relates to job performance. Instead, our goal is to examine the relationships between age and job performance dimensions across different cohorts and research contexts. For instance, is age, on average, related to job performance after taking into consideration different sample characteristics and research conditions? Is the relationship between age and core task performance stronger or weaker than the relationship between age and citizenship behavior? These are the kinds of questions we attempt to address here.Older workers. Who is considered an â€Å"older worker† has been debated in the literature for quite some time. In the retirement literature, older workers are often identified by having reached retirement age or by years until reaching retirement age (Beehr, 1986; Doeringer, 1990). Moreover, as Cleveland and Shore ( 1992) have noted, age can be defined in terms of an employee’s chronological age, the employee’s subjective age (the individual’s self-perception of age), the employee’s social age (others’ perceptions of the employee’s age), and the employee’s relative age (the egree to which the individual is older than others in the work group). Thus, the meaning of â€Å"old† depends, to some extent, on the demographic profiles of an organization or occupation (Shore, Cleveland, & Goldberg, 2003). Another definition that is frequently used in this literature is the legal definition of â€Å"older worker† provided by the U. S. Age Discrimination in Employment Act of 1967 (ADEA). This act prohibits discrimination against workers who are 40 years old or above.Although our data analyses use continuous measures of age wherever possible, in our discussion of â€Å"older workers† in the text, we generally rely on the ADEA definition for a variety of reasons. First, previous meta-analyses of age in the applied psychology literature have also utilized 40 years old as the cutoff age (Thornton & Dumke, 2005). Second, unlike authors in disciplines like gerontology and sociology (e. g. , Lindenberger & Baltes, 1997) who use high cutoff ages to make fine distinctions between the â€Å"young elderly† and â€Å"old elderly† (e. g. under and over age 85), scholars in the organizational sciences are particularly attuned to the fact that the age range in the active workforce is typically 16 – 65 years old (International Labor Organization, 2005). Thus, at least in terms of making a dichotomous split in the workforce, 40 years old appears to be an acceptable cutoff to distinguish between younger and older workers. Third, careers researchers have observed that age 40 typically marks the end of career establishment stage and the start of career maintenance stage (Super, 1980).As such, the chronological ag e of 40 often represents a major transition in career stages as well. Finally, defining older workers as 40 or above has some practical benefits because it directly aligns research findings regarding older workers to management implications regarding ADEA compliance in hiring, termination, performance evaluation, and promotion decisions. Undoubtedly over time, the definition of â€Å"older worker† will change. For example, the amendment of ADEA (by the Older Workers Benefit Protection Act of 1990 and the Civil Rights Act of 1991) to prohibit mandatory retirement ages may ultimately push back the age t which people retire (although labor statistics have not indicated any increases in retirement age as of yet). Even more likely, gains in life expectancy will change our conceptions of who is â€Å"middle-aged† and who is â€Å"old. † For our current purposes, though, the definition of older workers as being age 40 or older is consistent with both previous research and legal definitions and has the benefit of being â€Å"objectively† determined and verifiable across researchers and contexts. Previous Reviews of the Age–Performance RelationshipThree major quantitative reviews of this literature have been published in the last 25 years. Waldman and Avolio’s (1986) review is the earliest meta-analysis in this area. The authors identified 13 empirical studies containing 40 samples. They found that age was positively related to productivity measures of job performance (. 27). On the other hand, age was weakly but negatively related to supervisor ratings of job performance ( . 14). Furthermore, Waldman and Avolio found that the relationship between age and supervisor-rated job performance was stronger for nonprofessionals ( . 8) than for professionals ( . 05). Peer ratings of job performance were related to age at . 10. In sum, Waldman and Avolio (1986) illustrated that the sign of the relationship between age and task performan ce varies depend- 394 NG AND FELDMAN ing upon which measure of performance is being utilized, who does the performance ratings, and what kinds of jobs workers hold. To the extent that there is a drawback to this meta-analysis, it is the lack of availability of a large number of studies at that time.Meta-analyses that include too few cumulative studies may contain second-order sampling errors (Hunter & Schmidt, 1990). Addressing this drawback, McEvoy and Cascio (1989) identified 65 empirical studies (containing 96 samples) conducted on the relationship between age and performance. Across these 96 samples, the authors found that the mean correlation between age and job performance was quite low (. 06) and that the confidence intervals contained the value of zero. Unlike Waldman and Avolio (1986), McEvoy and Cascio found that type of performance rating (productivity vs. upervisory rating) and job type (professional vs. nonprofessional) did not moderate the relationship between age and performance. The different results observed in these two meta-analyses may be attributable to the different sets of studies the researchers considered, as McEvoy and Cascio located a wider range of empirical studies than Waldman and Avolio had included. Sturman’s (2003) meta-analysis hypothesized that the relationships of performance with three age-related variables (chronological age, job experience, and organizational tenure) were in the form of an inverted-U shape.With respect to the age–performance relationship, Sturman found that the corrected effect size across 115 empirical studies was . 03. Although this effect size is very small, he did find that this relationship was indeed an inverted-U shape. That is, age was positively related to job performance when age was low but was negatively related to job performance when age was high ( 49 years old). Below, we highlight the main evidence supporting these three different perspectives on the age–performance re lationship.Whereas earlier research on older workers largely focused on the negative relationship between age and task performance (S. R. Rhodes, 1983), more recently researchers have been examining the ways in which age can facilitate task performance or, at the minimum, not adversely affect it (Ebner, Freund, & Baltes, 2006; Kanfer & Ackerman, 2004). As a result, we have a much richer picture now of how age is positively or negatively related to core task performance but not as complete a picture of how age relates to a broad spectrum of other performance measures. unctions, that is, monitoring and controlling attention, suppressing irrelevant information, utilizing analytical reasoning, and updating information in working memory. Older individuals were found to perform much more poorly on this test battery than their younger counterparts. In general, M. G. Rhodes’s results suggest that older individuals may have more difficulties with complex tasks that require a high leve l of executive functioning. Indeed, there is also cumulative empirical evidence to indicate that older individuals do not do as well as younger individuals when performing multiple complex tasks simultaneously (Verhaeghen, Steitz,Sliwinski, & Cerella, 2003). Another area in which age appears to have negative association with performance is memory capacity. Previous meta-analyses have demonstrated a significant negative relationship between age and memory. For instance, older adults were found to have poorer recognition and recall memory than younger adults (La Voie & Light, 1994; Spencer & Raz, 1995; Verhaeghen, Marcoen, & Goosens, 1993). Moreover, as a result of these memory differences, employees are less likely to trust the memories of older coworkers.In an experimental study of attribution theory, for example, Erber and Danker (1995) found that participants expected memory-related performance problems of older workers to continue longer than those of younger workers and were les s likely to recommend training when â€Å"problem† employees were older. Above and beyond these differences in aptitudes and short-term memory, researchers have also found that older individuals may have less intense work motivation than their younger colleagues (S. R. Rhodes, 1983). For instance, Ebner et al. 2006) found that younger individuals are more likely to frame their goal orientations in terms of striving for gains (e. g. , I want to improve my fitness), whereas older individuals are more likely to frame their goal orientation around maintaining the status quo or preventing loss (e. g. , I do not want my fitness to deteriorate). These changes in motivation may also be linked to lower productivity on the job. Evidence Supporting Positive or Neutral Relationships of Age With Performance The above literature paints a rather pessimistic view of the relationship of age with job performance.Nonetheless, a strong case can also be made that older workers may exhibit at leas t the same, if not greater, job performance as their younger colleagues (Greller & Simpson, 1999). The rationale most frequently cited to support this case is that older workers substitute lengthy job experience and greater general expertise for speed of information acquisition and information recall. This wisdom and expertise, accumulated over the course of a career, may be sufficient to compensate for productivity losses due to any changes in cognitive and physical abilities (Baltes, Staudinger, Maercker, & Smith, 1995).Kanfer and Ackerman (2004) have emphasized that older age is often accompanied by increases in â€Å"crystallized† intelligence (experiential knowledge). Indeed, experimental evidence provides robust support for Kanfer and Ackerman’s assertion. For instance, Allen, Lien, Murphy, Sanders, and McCann (2002) found that older participants could multitask as effectively as younger participants, albeit at a slower pace. Artistico, Cervone, and Pezzuti (2003 ) found that older adults’ performance in solving problems exceeded that of younger adults when the problems were familiarEvidence Supporting Negative Relationships of Age With Performance Numerous studies have found support for the proposition that age negatively relates to cognitive functioning. For instance, in a large sample of 20,000 American workers across multiple occupational groups, Avolio and Waldman (1994) found that age was negatively related to several types of aptitudes, including general intelligence, verbal aptitude, numerical aptitude, spatial aptitude, form perception, clerical perception, motor coordination, finger dexterity, and manual dexterity.Thus, for jobs in which general cognitive abilities, visual-perceptual abilities, and psychomotor abilities are important components for superior job performance, Avolio and Waldman have suggested that age is negatively related to job performance. Furthermore, M. G. Rhodes (2004) found that there was a strong and s ignificant difference between older and younger adults in performance on a test battery measuring individuals’ executive AGE AND JOB PERFORMANCE 395 and representative of tasks frequently encountered.ColoniaWillner (1998) found that the best performing older employees had higher levels of tacit knowledge than their younger employees. Studies using different research designs have also found that professional expertise, developed over years of practice and experience, can attenuate potential negative relationships between age and performance dimensions (Hess & Auman, 2001; Lindenberger, Kliegl, & Baltes, 1992; Morrow, Leirer, Altieri, & Fitzsimmons, 1994; Thornton & Dumke, 2005; Wilson, Li, Bienias, & Bennett, 2006).Taken together, the research described above suggests that, after a slower pace of initial learning, older workers can reach the same performance levels as those of their younger colleagues and can multitask effectively. Moreover, when older workers are asked to sol ve familiar problems, higher self-efficacy beliefs are activated, and these beliefs can accelerate performance. Thus, although fluid intelligence, short-term working memory, and cognitive speed may decrease with age, deductive reasoning and professional expertise are likely to increase (Masunaga & Horn, 2001).Moreover, increased wisdom and judgment gained over years of service may increase older workers’ effectiveness in contextual performance activities as well. Creativity Creativity is the extent to which employees generate new and useful ideas for improving organizational productivity (Anderson, De Dreu, & Nijstad, 2004). For many jobs, creativity might be considered as a separate element of job performance, particularly when creativity relates to organizational adaptability and flexibility.For instance, some researchers have emphasized the importance of employees’ creativity as a critical component of an organization’s ability to adapt to rapidly changing bu siness environments (A. De Jonge & De Ruyter, 2004; Johnson, 2001). Consistent with this view of creativity as a key element of job effectiveness, a major study of performance evaluation systems found that some organizations evaluated employees on their innovativeness as well as on their core task performance (Welbourne, Johnson, & Erez, 1998). Performance in Training ProgramsOlder workers are often stereotyped as being somewhat resistant to change and slow in learning new material. For this reason, researchers have examined older workers’ performance in training programs as an element of job effectiveness (Martocchio, 1994). As Tracey, Tannenbaum, and Michael (1995) have suggested, organizations typically provide training to employees on the basis of the assumption that the short-run costs of the design and execution of training can be recouped through employees’ increased productivity in the long run.However, if employees do not perform well in training programs, it is highly unlikely that they will transfer that new knowledge to real work settings. Furthermore, when employees fail to learn in training programs, the expenses associated with training are wasted as well (Winfred, Bennett, Edens, & Bell, 2003). Expanding the Domain of the Performance Construct Previous reviews of the age–performance relationship have primarily focused on the performance of core tasks.According to Borman and Motowidlo (1997), core task performance is concerned with â€Å"the effectiveness with which job incumbents perform activities that contribute to the organization’s technical core† (p. 99). In addition to core task performance, however, we also examine nine other performance dimensions that comprise the two broad categories of job behaviors identified by Hunt (1996) as independent of the core job role, namely, citizenship behaviors and minimum performance behaviors.Citizenship behaviors are those extra behaviors engaged in by employees, ove r and above their core task requirements, that actively promote and strengthen the organization’s effectiveness (Organ, 1988). In this study, the first category is represented by such dimensions as employee creativity, performance in training programs, citizenship behaviors geared to different beneficiaries, and safety performance. In contrast, minimum performance behaviors are those that employees have to engage in (like attending work) or refrain from engaging in (like theft) to keep their jobs (Hunt, 1996).This second category is represented by such dimensions as general counterproductive work behaviors, workplace aggression, on-the-job substance use, tardiness, and absenteeism. Conceptually, there are certainly other behavioral dimensions that could be included under these two categories. For example, working long hours and demonstrating effective leadership are examples of additional citizenship behaviors that might be considered, whereas refraining from sexual harassmen t and manipulating stock prices are additional examples of minimum performance variables that could be considered.Empirically, however, a metaanalysis is constrained by the number of previous studies conducted on a specific relationship, and here we have included the nine dimensions identified above as the ones on which the most empirical studies are available. We discuss each of these additional nine dimensions of job performance in more detail below. OCBs Researchers have documented the importance of OCB for organizational functioning over the last 2 decades (LePine, Erez, & Johnson, 2002; Organ, 1988).OCBs (sometimes called prosocial behaviors or extrarole behaviors) are not job-specific but rather support the broader organizational environment in which core performance takes place (Motowidlo & Van Scotter, 1994; Organ, 1988). Examples of OCB are compliance with organizational norms, not complaining about trivial matters, and helping coworkers. Employees’ aggregated OCBs f requently benefit group, unit, and organizational productivity (Podsakoff, MacKenzie, Paine, & Bachrach, 2000). Safety PerformanceSafety performance is the extent to which employees comply with safety rules and demonstrate safe behaviors in the workplace (Parker, Axtell, & Turner, 2001). This performance dimension is particularly important in industries that require employee contact with hazardous materials, operation of heavy machinery, and extensive highway driving (Clarke & Robertson, 2005). Poor safety performance can have two distinct negative consequences for firms’ effectiveness. At the individual level, inattention to safety behaviors contributes to employee injuries; these injuries result in lower worker productivity and time lost from work.At the orga- 396 NG AND FELDMAN nizational level, poor safety practices contribute to potentially costly litigation. These claims create substantial financial burdens for firms in the event of serious employee accidents, dismember ments, and death (Hofmann & Morgeson, 1999). Both directly and indirectly, then, employee safety behaviors are an important component of job performance. General Counterproductive Work Behaviors Whereas research investigating OCB concentrates on what workers can do to romote smooth organizational functioning, research on workplace deviance examines how the lack of counterproductive work behaviors is essential to maintaining smooth organizational functioning (Neuman & Baron, 1998). Counterproductive work behaviors are intentional employee acts that harm organizations’ legitimate business interests (Bennett & Robinson, 2000). Examples of counterproductive work behaviors include working on personal matters instead of assigned tasks, neglecting supervisors’ instructions, stealing property, starting or repeating rumors and gossip, and using unprofessional language.It is easy to see the multiple ways in which these counterproductive work behaviors can reduce both individual and group performance. Moreover, Dalal (2005) found that employees who frequently engaged in counterproductive work behaviors were also less likely to demonstrate OCBs. son, 2000; Martocchio, 1989). Researchers have documented numerous negative effects of employee absence on organizational productivity (Harrison & Martocchio, 1998). When employees are absent from work, the completion of their own work is slowed down.Coworkers are often called upon to cover for absent employees, thereby distracting them from completing their own assignments. In cases in which task interdependence among a group of workers is high, the whole team’s progress may be affected when an employee is chronically absent or absent for extended periods of time. As with tardiness, frequent absences can also adversely affect organizational productivity by creating an â€Å"absence culture† in which more and more employees consider being absent acceptable (rather than counterproductive) behavior (Johns & Xie, 1998).Summary. Before we can draw strong conclusions about the relationship of age to job performance, then, it is important to consider citizenship behaviors and minimum performance behaviors in addition to core task performance. In light of the above literature review, we include 10 dimensions of job performance in the current meta-analysis: core task performance, creativity, performance in training programs, OCB, safety performance, general counterproductive work behaviors, workplace aggression, on-thejob substance use, tardiness, and absenteeism.From this point on, we use the phrase â€Å"job performance† to represent these 10 dimensions collectively. Specific Counterproductive Work Behaviors In addition to general counterproductive work behaviors, four specific forms of counterproductive work behavior have been discussed separately and extensively in the literature. We also examine these four specific counterproductive work behaviors— workplace aggression, on-the-job substance use, tardiness, and absenteeism—in the present meta-analysis. Workplace aggression.Workplace aggression consists of employees’ efforts to harm others with whom they work, harm the reputation of their current employers, or harm former colleagues and previous employers (Lapierre, Spector, & Leck, 2005). Acts of workplace aggression can cause bodily harm to employees, pose physical danger for customers, create public relations crises, and harm the business reputation of the firm as a whole. On-the-job substance use. On-the-job substance use involves drinking alcohol or taking illegal drugs at work or during work time (Frone, 2003).Researchers have found that on-the-job substance use hampers individuals’ decision-making abilities; increases the frequency of dysfunctional job behaviors; and puts coworkers, supervisors, and customers at increased risk of injury (Lehman & Simpson, 1992). Tardiness. Tardiness is lateness for work (Blau, 1994; Koslo wsky, Sagie, Krausz, & Singer, 1997). Employee tardiness is likely to create both direct financial costs to organizations (e. g. , decreased time on productive activities) and indirect financial costs (e. g. , time lost by coworkers waiting for late colleagues. . Left unchecked, numerous cases of tardiness can lead to a â€Å"culture of tardiness† (Koslowsky et al. , 1997) in which employees come to see being late as an acceptable behavior rather than as a deviant one. Absenteeism. Skipping work has also been conceptualized as a form of employee counterproductive behavior (Bennett & Robin- Moderator Relationships Another way in which the present study contributes to the literature is by investigating how different sample and design characteristics moderate the relationship between age and job performance.Many of these characteristics have been discussed in the literature as variables that can affect age–performance relationships (Lawrence, 1996; S. R. Rhodes, 1983; Sho re et al. , 2003; Sturman, 2003) and as potential explanations for inconsistent research findings in the area. Sample Characteristics In this study, we examine the potential moderating effects of the average age, age dispersion, job tenure, and organizational tenure of research samples.Testing for average sample age as a moderator essentially examines whether the form of the relationship between age and performance is linear or curvilinear (see Sturman, 2003). Testing the moderating role of age dispersion associated with the sample (operationalized as the standard deviation of age in the sample) assesses whether the age–performance relationship varies across samples with different degrees of age homogeneity. Testing for average job tenure and average organizational tenure examines whether the age–performance relationship varies across samples with different (average) tenures.In general, these four sample characteristics might influence authors’ definitions of â €Å"old† in a particular setting. We also examine the potential moderating effects of job complexity. The job complexity of the sample is important to consider here because it influences the extent to which the specific job skills required on jobs are associated with age-related performance problems. For the same reason, we also consider two related variables, namely, proportion of college degree holders and proportion of AGE AND JOB PERFORMANCE 397 managers in the sample.It is likely that older workers with more education or who hold managerial roles may have greater ability to substitute accumulated knowledge and judgment for precise technical skills. As such, the results of research on age–performance relationships may vary across samples with different mixes of college graduates and managers. In a more exploratory fashion, we also examine the effects of proportion of women and proportion of Caucasians in the sample. Gender and race have frequently been studied as i ndependent or control variables in previous research on aging, but here we consider their potential moderating effects instead.Examining these two â€Å"proportion† moderators assesses whether the age–performance relationship varies across samples with different proportions of women and Caucasians. of 1993 may have changed the ways in which organizations distinguish between â€Å"absence† and â€Å"leave† before and after that year. Similarly, the amended ADEA prohibits mandatory retirement ages, which might have changed the relationship between age and performance over time because of a potential change in the proportion of older workers in the labor force.Collectively, then, these changes may have affected the context in which older workers perform and thus the relationship of age to performance as well. Method Literature Search We performed a comprehensive search for those articles published during or before December 2006 that examined the relationship between age and job performance. Other published studies that did not aim at investigating this specific relationship but reported their effect sizes nonetheless were also included. We also searched for unpublished studies and dissertations to reduce the â€Å"file-drawer problem† (Rosenthal, 1979).We began our literature search by using the following keywords: age, job performance, task performance, productivity, creativity, innovation, training effectiveness, training performance, contextual performance, citizenship behavior, prosocial behavior, extrarole behavior, safety, injuries, accidents, counterproductive behavior, deviance, deviant behavior, aggression, aggressive behavior, violence, violent behavior, substance use, drinking, alcohol, drug, tardiness, lateness, absenteeism, absence, and job complexity.We searched in numerous research databases, including Dissertation Abstracts International, EBSCOHost, Emerald, Factiva, JSTOR, Oxford Journals, Proquest, PsycINFO, Sc ienceDirect, Sage Full-Text Collections, and several Wiley InterScience databases. Furthermore, the reference lists of recent meta-analyses that focused on criterion variables of interest were examined carefully to locate other relevant articles. These included, for instance, reference lists from meta-analyses on OCB (LePine et al. , 2002), absence (Martocchio, 1989), task performance (Judge, Thoresen, Bono, & Patton, 2001), work injuries (Clarke & Robertson, 2005), and ounterproductive work behavior (Dalal, 2005). Such metaanalyses contained comprehensive and current reference lists in their respective research fields. Four inclusion and exclusion criteria were set prior to the start of the article search. First, we included field studies in which the age–job performance relationship occurred naturally, whereas laboratory studies were excluded. It is much more difficult to gather measures on performance dimensions besides core task performance in experimental settings (e. g. , lateness and absence).In addition, we had some concern that core task performance observed in laboratory studies might be partially attributable to the strength and form of the experimental manipulations themselves. Second, studies that examined age or performance only at the team level or organization level were excluded because our focus in this research is on individual behavior rather than group-level performance. Third, to avoid double counting, we excluded those studies in which authors used the same data set and reported the same correlations as in their other published studies.Fourth, we included studies that involved four types of performance ratings: ratings by Data Collection Characteristics We examine the moderating effects of two data collection characteristics in particular: (a) whether data were collected longitudinally or cross-sectionally, and (b) the publication year of articles. Both these moderators address the role of time in the age–performance relati onship. Cross-sectional data collection allows researchers to examine the extent to which there are group-level age differences (between different age cohorts) in job performance across different samples and research contexts.In contrast, longitudinal data collection helps shed light on the extent to which intraindividual aging is related to job performance (Baltes, Schaie, & Nardi, 1971; Schaie & Hofer, 2001). Results may vary, then, depending upon how the data in a study were collected. For instance, the effect of intraindividual aging on performance may be subtle and gradual, but the differences in performance between broad age groups at one point in time can be quite large. Thus, we examine the distinction between cross-sectional and longitudinal data collection as a potential moderator here. It should be noted that to truly examine the effect of aging on erformance, it would be ideal to focus the meta-analysis on longitudinal studies alone. However, there are too few articles a vailable to conduct a meta-analysis on only longitudinal studies; in fact, only 12% of the articles on this topic have been longitudinal in nature. Further, even if we tried to examine only longitudinal studies, the time period examined in those studies does not exceed 5 years, and the average period of time examined in those studies is only about 1 year. Thus, these studies generally do not use long enough time spans to capture intraindividual aging either.Thus, our database here largely consists of cross-sectional studies, allowing us to get an overall picture of the strength of various age–performance links, considering the variation in the specific performance measures, sample characteristics, and data collection characteristics. We revisit the limitations of cross-sectional data collection in conducting research involving age in more detail later in the article. The year a particular study was published is used here as a rough proxy for the nature of the work environment at the time a study was conducted.For instance, the last 2 decades have seen increased reliance on career self-management (Arthur & Rousseau, 1996), which may have loosened workers’ attachment to long-time employers and increased workers’ willingness to change careers later in life. The introduction of the Family and Medical Leave Act 398 NG AND FELDMAN supervisors, ratings by others (peers, subordinates, and customers), self-ratings, and objective measures. This allowed us to examine the moderating role of sources of rating in the age–performance relationship.With the above search criteria, our search yielded a total of 380 empirical studies, which collectively contain 438 independent samples. Thirteen studies were unpublished dissertations. Of the studies, 14% were published before 1990, 30% of the studies were published between 1990 and 1999, and the remaining 56% were published between 2000 and 2006. The average age across all samples that provided age info rmation was 36. 6 years old (ranged between 17 and 59 years old with a standard deviation of 8. 8 years). The list of studies is provided in the Appendix. Measures of Key ConstructsCreativity. Previous studies have measured creativity either via self-ratings or ratings by others; we used these two categories in the meta-analysis as well. Sample items of typical Likert-scale measures of creativity include the following: â€Å"creating new ideas for improvements†; â€Å"searching out new working methods, techniques, or instruments†; and â€Å"generating original solutions to problems† (Janssen, 2001). It should be noted that we did not differentiate between creativity and innovation (Anderson et al. , 2004); both types of measures are included in our study.Performance in training programs. Here, we focused on studies that involved training of adults on tasks that have at least some relevance in organizational contexts. Furthermore, only studies that had an explici t training intervention and had measured posttraining performance, competence, or learning were included. Measures of training performance consisted of either ratings given by supervisors or performance on posttraining tests. Studies that assessed employees’ participation in computer usage training are representative of the kinds of research articles included in this meta-analysis (e. . , Martocchio, 1994). Other example studies include training programs that teach specific competences or subject-related knowledge (e. g. , law or health care). Although our decision to include only studies that measured posttraining performance gave us a consistent perspective on the effects of training on performance, as we discuss later, the resulting set of studies was likely overrepresented by technology training programs in which older workers might be less likely to excel. OCBs. We included two types of OCB in the meta-analysis.The first set of studies examined general OCBs and did not d ifferentiate among beneficiaries of those OCBs. The second set of studies examined OCBs geared to three specific beneficiaries: other people on the job, the employer organization as a whole, and the tasks themselves. These subtypes have been identified by previous researchers as reasonable groupings of behaviors in this domain (LePine et al. , 2002). According to LePine et al. (2002), examples of OCB directed to others are helping colleagues with their work and orienting newcomers.Examples of organization-directed OCB are compliance with organizational norms and not complaining about trivial matters. Examples of task-directed OCB are spending extra effort and persistence on the job and trying hard to improve personal and group performance. It should be noted, too, that within each of these three subtypes, we further differentiated self-ratings from ratings by others. Safety performance. With respect to the measurement of safety performance, three major indicators have frequently bee n used in previous research and were included in the present metaanalysis.First, some studies have measured the frequency of work injuries via archival industrial health records. For instance, Hofmann and Morgeson (1999) measured workplace injuries by using the company’s archival records of injuries or accidents that occurred in the previous 12-month period. Second, other studies have utilized self-report measures of frequency of work injuries. A third set of studies have measured self-reported levels of compliance with safety procedures and practices. A sample item from this kind of measure is â€Å"Occasionally I bend the safety rules when I know it’s safe to do so (reverse coded)† (Parker et al. 2001). General counterproductive work behaviors. Most studies have measured general counterproductive work behaviors without differentiating targets, that is, without specifying the target of the counterproductive behavior. A few studies have differentiated between co unterproductive work behaviors directed at specific others and those directed at the organization as a whole (e. g. , Liao, Joshi, & Chuang, 2004). However, because of the small number of studies making this distinction, the current meta-analysis did not differentiate between these two categories of studies.In those few studies that reported both interpersonal and organizational counterproductive work behaviors, we averaged the correlations to obtain an estimate of general counterproductive work behavior. Sample Likert items of measures of general counterproductive work behaviors include the following: â€Å"I keep important information away from my boss† and â€Å"I openly compromise with others but delay implementing the compromise until my own objectives are accomplished† (Duffy, Ganster, & Shaw, 1998). Here, too, we differentiated between self-ratings of counterproductive work behavior and ratings by others.Workplace aggression. As mentioned above, four specific ty pes of counterproductive work behaviors have frequently been measured in previous research on this topic, and therefore we examined these four specific types of counterproductive behavior in more depth. Measures of workplace aggression typically ask respondents to indicate the frequency of occurrence of aggressive behaviors, such as yelling, swearing at others, damaging others’ property, and fighting (Glomb & Liao, 2003). All the studies we located utilized self-reported measures.On-the-job substance use. These measures typically ask respondents to indicate the frequency of on-the-job use of alcohol or drugs (Frone, 2003). Here, too, all the studies identified utilized self-ratings. Tardiness. Tardiness is typically measured in two ways. In the first, employees are asked self-report questions like â€Å"How often are you late from work? (never to constantly)† (Hanisch & Hulin, 1990). In the second, archival measures of lateness are obtained directly from personnel reco rds (Conte & Jacobs, 2003).We included both self-report and archival measures of tardiness in the meta-analysis. Absenteeism. Absenteeism has been measured in three different ways in previous research. The first group of studies measure general absenteeism; these studies do not differentiate between when employees are absent because of sickness or for purely discretionary reasons (Xie & Johns, 2000). Other studies in this line of research measure either the number of days absent from work in a given period (absence duration) or the frequency of AGE AND JOB PERFORMANCE 99 absence spells in a given period (absence frequency). Because these indices are all closely related (Conte & Jacobs, 2003), they are aggregated together in the present meta-analysis. A second research stream includes studies that measure sickness absenteeism. As an example, J. De Jonge, Reuvers, Houtman, and Kompier (2000) computed sickness absence as the number of separate spells of sickness absence during 1 full c alendar year. Researchers have traditionally viewed absenteeism due to sickness as involuntary absence (Dalton & Todor, 1993).The third, and last, group of absence studies consists of those that measure nonsickness-related absenteeism. For instance, Vigoda (2001, p. 1499) asked respondents to report â€Å"their estimates of days missed work (during the previous year) for reasons other than sickness. † As another example, Deery, Erwin, and Iverson (1999) obtained personnel records of frequency of nonmedically certified absences during the prior 12-month period. In contrast to sickness-related absence, researchers have generally viewed nonsickness-related absence as an indicator of voluntary withdrawal behavior (Dalton & Todor, 1993).Meta-Analytical Procedures Hunter and Schmidt’s (1990) meta-analysis technique, which requires corrections for both measurement error and sampling error, was used. Because there is no theoretical reason to believe the measurement of age woul d contain measurement error, we followed the practice of previous researchers (Martocchio, 1989) and did not disattenuate the measurement of age in individual studies. On the other hand, the behavioral measures of job performance did require disattenuation to remove the influence of measurement errors.Disattenuation of core task performance. Some researchers have reasoned that it is more appropriate to use interrater reliability to correct for imperfect measurement when task performance is rated by others (i. e. , not by oneself; Judge et al. , 2001; Schmidt & Hunter, 1996; Viswesvaran, Ones, & Schmidt, 1996). In contrast, other researchers argue that measures of intrarater reliability (that is, alpha coefficients or internal consistency estimates) are more appropriate in this regard (Murphy & De Shon, 2000).In light of these different perspectives on disattentuation, we disattenuated the observed correlations for either imperfect intrarater reliability or imperfect interrater relia bility. We first corrected studies for the lack of perfect intrarater reliability in the measurement of core task performance. Because different studies may measure the same construct using different scales, this disattenuation process also adjusts for the different levels of measurement error contained in different scales (Hunter & Schmidt, 1990).This type of correction requires the use of alpha coefficients (i. e. , internal consistency estimates) reported in individual studies. If no alpha value was reported for a particular scale in a study, an average alpha value calculated from the rest of the studies using the same scale was taken as a substitute (Judge et al. , 2001). The above procedure for correction for imperfect intrarater reliability was performed on all self-report measures and on all measures provided by supervisors, peers, and customers.We corrected studies for imperfect interrater reliability when core task performance was measured via ratings by others (i. e. , not via self-reports). This type of correction required the use of interrater reliability estimates. Unfortunately, many studies included in the meta-analysis did not report these estimates. Therefore, following Judge et al. (2001), for studies that used supervisors as the rating source, we disattenuated the correlations using the metaanalytical estimate of the reliability of supervisor-rated job performance provided by Viswesvaran et al. (1996).For studies that used peers to rate job performance, we disattenuated the correlations using the meta-analytical estimate of the reliability of peer-rated job performance. Because there is a lack of research on interrater reliability associated with less frequently-used raters (i. e. , customers, subordinates, students, or spouses), in these cases we utilized as a proxy estimate the average of the meta-analytical estimate of the reliability of supervisor-rated performance and that of peerrated job performance. As noted earlier, several studies utilized objective measures of core task performance (e. g. quantity of output, sales volume, errors made). Although the notion of interrater and intrarater reliability does not apply to objective measures, it should be noted that these objective measures are still likely to contain some measurement error and might vary depending upon the job complexity of the sample (Sturman, Cheramie, & Cashen, 2005). Because studies seldom reported any kind of reliability estimates for objective measures of core task performance, as a substitute we adopted the meta-analytical estimate of the test–retest reliability of the objective measure of job performance provided by Sturman et al. 2005). Sturman et al. calculated two separate estimates of the reliability of objective task performance, one for jobs of low complexity (e. g. , secretary) and one for jobs of high complexity (e. g. , engineer). For those studies that sampled mixed job complexity types, we used the average value of Sturman e t al. ’s two estimates as the proxy. Disattenuation of other performance measures. The disattenuation of the observed correlations between age and the remaining dimensions of job performance largely followed the protocols outlined above.For instance, for self-ratings of creativity, OCB, counterproductive work behaviors, workplace aggression, tardiness, and absence, we corrected for imperfect intrarater reliability using either alpha coefficients (if provided) or an average alpha value based on the remaining studies that used the same scales (if alpha was not provided). For nonself ratings of these performance dimensions, in addition to correcting for imperfect intrarater reliability using the above procedure, we also corrected for imperfect interrater reliability using Viswesvaran et al. s (1996) metaanalytical estimates of the reliability of job performance. Finally, for performance measures that were objective in nature (e. g. , training test scores and company records of w ork injuries, lateness, and absence), we used Sturman et al. ’s (2005) meta-analytical estimate of test–retest reliability of the objective performance measure as a substitute. Corrections for sampling errors. The second step in the metaanalysis was correction for sampling errors. Here, we calculated the sample size-weighted corrected correlation. A corrected correlation was judged to be significant at . 5 when its 95% confidence interval did not include the value of zero. Moderator Analyses Subgroup moderator analyses. Two approaches to moderator testing were used. The first one was subgroup analysis; this ap- 400 NG AND FELDMAN proach was taken when the moderator variables were categorical in nature (e. g. , longitudinal vs. cross-sectional data collection). The coding of most of these categorical moderator variables is self-explanatory. The coding for the job complexity and age moderators, though, requires some further explanation.In the case of job complexity, two researchers were responsible for the coding. The coding process was guided by previous metaanalyses that also coded job complexity (e. g. , Avolio & Waldman, 1990; Salgado et al. , 2003; Wood, Mento, & Locke, 1987). Specifically, the two raters classified each sample occupation into high and low job complexity according to the general intelligence, verbal ability, and numerical ability required to perform the job (Avolio & Waldman, 1990). Interrater agreement was 93%. In situations in which there was disagreement, discussion was used to reach consensus.The Dictionary of Occupational Titles (1991) was used to assist in these discussions, too, because jobs in the Dictionary of Occupational Titles are coded and classified according to several dimensions (e. g. , data, people, and things) that reflect job complexity (Avolio & Waldman, 1990; Salgado et al. , 2003). Examples of â€Å"high complexity† jobs are researchers, accountants, business consultants, psychiatrists, engineers, managers/executives, financial analysts, nurses, IT professionals, and teachers. â€Å"Low complexity† jobs include clerks, restaurant workers, highway maintenance workers, truck drivers, and receptionists.In those cases in which we needed to examine the differences across different age subgroups, we sorted studies into four groups on the basis of the average age of the sample: less than 30 years old, 31–35, 36 – 40, and over 40 years old. The reason underlying this categorization is four-fold. First, it approximately equalized the number of studies contained in each group. Second, previous research on life-span development has suggested that the time before 30 years old is often a period within which individuals explore careers, whereas the time after 40 years old roughly marked the end of establishment years (Super, 1980).Third, ADEA also uses 40 as the â€Å"cutoff age. † Last, much of the previous research on age and job performance has used decade o r halfdecade benchmarks. Regression-based moderator testing. In other cases, the original studies did not provide sufficient sample information with which to categorize moderators. For these moderator variables, therefore, regression-based moderator testing was used. To illustrate the statistical procedures, we utilize the example of â€Å"proportion of women† (i. e. , gender).We tested the plausibility of gender as a moderator by investigating the effect of the percentage of women in the sample (which was a continuous variable) on the observed relationship between age and job performance (cf. Ng, Eby, Sorensen, & Feldman, 2005). In essence, we used the percentage of women in the sample as an independent variable, in a weighted least squares multiple regression, to predict the correlation coefficients for the age–job performance relationship. If the percentage of women in the sample as a significant predictor of a relationship between age and a dimension of job perform ance, then it would suggest that gender moderated that relationship. It should be noted that, among the eight sample characteristics on which we applied this regression approach, only average age, age dispersion, average job tenure, and average organizational tenure of the sample were truly continuous variables per se. The remaining characteristics (proportion of degree holders, managers, women, and Caucasians) were proxies for sociodemographic variables that are typically measured as categorical variables at the individual level.Nonetheless, this regression technique for testing for moderators in meta-analyses has been found to be more reliable and robust than alternative methods for dealing with this analysis challenge (Steel & Kammeyer-Mueller, 2002). Results The meta-analysis results for the relationships between age and the 10 performance dimensions are presented in Table 1. Relationships Between Age and Job Performance Core task performance. We found that age was largely unrel ated to core task performance. It was related to supervisor-rated task performance at . 02 (. 03 when corrected for interrater reliability), objective measures of task performance at . 3, and self-rated task performance at . 06. Age was unrelated to core task performance as rated by peers and others. Creativity. Age was not significantly related to creativity. Age was neither related to employee creativity as rated by supervisor (. 01; . 02 when corrected for interrater reliability) nor to selfreports of creativity ( . 01). Performance in training programs. We found that age had a weak, negative relationship with performance in training programs ( . 04). That is, older workers’ performance in training programs was found to be slightly lower than that of younger workers. General and specific types of OCB.On the other hand, age demonstrated significant and positive relationships with OCB. With respect to general OCB (i. e. , OCB that did not differentiate among or specify targe ts), age was related to ratings by others at . 06 (. 08 when corrected for interrater reliability) and to selfratings at . 08. Examining studies that differentiated targets of OCB revealed some interesting results. With respect to OCB directed at others, age was related to ratings by others at . 05 (. 06 when corrected for interrater reliability) and to self-ratings at . 07. With respect to OCB directed at organizations, age was related to ratings by others at . 6 (. 08 when corrected for interrater reliability) and to selfratings at . 14. With respect to OCB directed at tasks, age was related to ratings by others at . 21 (. 27 when corrected for interrater reliability) and to self-ratings at . 13. Safety performance. Age also demonstrated significant relationships with safety behavior. Specifically, age was positively related to self-rated compliance with safety rules and procedures at . 10. Furthermore, it was negatively related to objective frequency measures of work injuries at . 08 and to self-rated frequency of work injuries at . 03.General counterproductive work behavior. Age was significantly and negatively related to general counterproductive work behaviors. Most studies have measured general counterproductive work behaviors without differentiating targets. Age was negatively related to these ratings of counterproductive work behaviors given by others (supervisors/peers) at . 09 ( . 12 when corrected for interrater reliability) and to self-ratings at . 12. Specific counterproductive work behaviors. Moreover, older workers appear to engage in less workplace aggression, on-the-job substance use, and tardiness in particular. Age was negativelyAGE AND JOB PERFORMANCE 401 Table 1 Meta-Analytical Relationships Between Age and Job Performance Variable Core task performance Supervisor-rated (Corrected for interrater reliability) Rated by peers and others (Corrected for interrater reliability) Objective measures Self-rated Creativity Rated by supervisor or obj ective measures (Corrected for interrater reliability) Self-rated Performance in training programs Rated by supervisor or objective measures OCB General (undifferentiated targets) Rated by supervisors, peers, or others (Corrected for interrater reliability) Self-rated Directed at othersRated by supervisors, peers, or others (Corrected for interrater reliability) Self-rated Directed at organization Rated by supervisors, peers, or others (Corrected for interrater reliability) Self-rated Directed at tasks Rated by supervisors, peers, or others (Corrected for interrater reliability) Self-rated Safety performance Self-rated compliance with safety rules Objective frequency of work injuries Self-rated frequency of work injuries General counterproductive work behavior (undifferentiated targets or types) Rated by supervisor or peers (Corrected for interrater reliability) Self-rated Self-rated workplace aggression Self-rated on-the-job substance use Tard